According to the latest figures, the majority of the world’s population is now bilingual or multilingual. In addition to facilitating cross-cultural communication, this trend also positively affects cognitive abilities.

Research shows that bilingualism has many advantages, particularly in terms of cognitive development. In the past, bilingualism was sometimes seen as a disadvantage that might slow down a child’s progress at school. But a recent study carried out in the US suggests that bilingualism can have demonstrable benefits, not only in childhood but throughout a person’s life. The evidence from the study indicates that bilinguals tend to perform better in tasks that require conflict management. This is a reflection of their ability to suppress one language when using another, and it seems that the constant management of the two spoken languages extends to other cognitive skills.

Researcher Ellen Bialystok has also studied the effects of bilingualism on the brain. In one study, she investigated whether knowing more than one language protects you against the symptoms of dementia in old age. She found that the onset of dementia in monolinguals occurred at the age of 71.4, while for bilinguals it was 75.5. This is a very large difference. Other studies have also reported a positive correlation between degree of bilingualism and cognitive performance in older age. In a study carried out by Bialystok, bilingual and monolingual middle-aged people were compared on a range of complex cognitive tasks. The results showed that the bilinguals performed better in all cases. It appears that the bilingual advantage is related to the need to monitor the languages to avoid unwanted interference. This monitoring enhances the control mechanisms in the brain, which may then be used when tackling other tasks.

Research into the effects of bilingualism has also been carried out with babies. By measuring the length of time babies look at a face while it is talking, researchers have shown that by the age of four months, babies raised in bilingual households can tell the difference between the two languages, even when the languages are spoken by the same person. In a similar study with seven-month-olds raised in monolingual or bilingual homes, babies listened to three-syllable sequences that followed a simple rule. After listening to the sequences for two minutes, the babies were presented with new sequences that either followed the same rule or a different one. The babies from monolingual homes noticed the change only when the original rule had been simpler, while the babies from bilingual homes noticed the change even when the rule was more complex.

In another study, Bialystok gave the children a number of tasks to complete. One of these was a card-sorting task known as the Dimensional Change Card Sort Task. In this task, children are shown cards that have two different attributes, such as colour and shape. They might have red circles and green squares, for example. The children are asked to sort the cards in one way first, putting all the red ones in one pile and all the green ones in another. Once they have got the hang of this, they are asked to sort them according to the other attribute, putting all the circles in one pile and all the squares in another. In order to do this, they have to understand the first rule and then be able to change to the new rule. This requires a certain amount of mental flexibility and an ability to suppress a piece of information that has already been acquired. In this task, bilinguals of all ages performed better than monolinguals.

In another study, Bialystok found that bilingual children were more successful in solving problems in which there were conflicting cues. In one task, children were shown a row of four toy animals, such as three cows and a pig. The pig was at the back of the row and the children were asked: ‘Which animal is at the back?’ The correct answer is ‘pig’, but the animal that is physically hidden at the back of the row is a cow. Monolingual children found it more difficult to answer the question correctly, whereas bilinguals had no problem at all.

Bialystok’s research has demonstrated that the effects of bilingualism are not limited to language, but that they affect the individual’s entire cognitive system. So, while bilingualism may not necessarily make you smarter, it does make your brain more healthy, complex and actively engaged, and this can have only one benefit: better cognitive skills, whatever the age.

A. The Rosetta Stone is one of the most famous artefacts housed in the British Museum. But what exactly is it, and why is it significant? The Stone is a fragment of a much larger stele and contains an inscription in three distinct scripts. This discovery played a crucial role in enabling scholars to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphs, a writing system composed of pictorial symbols. Before its discovery, hieroglyphs had remained an enigma for centuries, with their meanings lost to time. Today, the Stone continues to be a symbol of linguistic breakthroughs and cultural heritage.

B. Carved in 196 BC and discovered in 1799, the Rosetta Stone is believed to have originally been displayed in a temple. During later periods, possibly in the early Christian or medieval era, it was relocated and ultimately repurposed as building material in the construction of Fort Julien near the town of Rashid (Rosetta) in the Nile Delta. At the time of its discovery, ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs were unreadable. The inscription on the Stone is an official decree issued on behalf of King Ptolemy V (r. 204–181 BC). This decree was not unique to the Rosetta Stone—it was duplicated on multiple large stone slabs, known as stelae, which were distributed across Egyptian temples. The Rosetta Stone itself is merely one of these copies, but its value lies in the fact that the text appears in three scripts: hieroglyphs, which were used for religious or formal inscriptions; Demotic, the everyday script of native Egyptians; and Greek, the administrative language of the ruling class, who were Greco-Macedonian descendants of Alexander the Great’s conquest.

C. The Rosetta Stone was discovered in a fragmented state, with only a portion of the original text surviving. It contains 14 lines of hieroglyphic script, 32 lines in Demotic, and 53 lines in Ancient Greek. But what does the inscription actually convey? The text, authored by a group of Egyptian priests, praises Ptolemy V and documents the benefits he granted to both the religious order and the wider population. The decree was inscribed in three scripts to ensure accessibility for various audiences—priests, officials, and rulers. Since Egypt at the time was governed by Greek kings following Alexander the Great’s conquest in 332 BC, Greek was the language of administration. The discovery of the Rosetta Stone was groundbreaking because scholars could still read Ancient Greek, allowing them to use it as a reference point to eventually decipher Egyptian hieroglyphs.

D. When the Stone was unearthed, its colour appeared unusual, likely due to prolonged burial in soil. After cleaning, it was identified as a dark grey-pinkish granodiorite, a rock similar to granite, featuring a characteristic pink streak. The polished surface reveals a mottled blend of pink and grey hues. Measuring 112.3 cm in height at its tallest point, 75.7 cm in width, and 28.4 cm in thickness, the Stone weighs approximately 760 kilograms. It has an irregular shape due to breakage, with the top section missing and a small fragment absent from the lower right corner. Originally, it would have been a rectangular stele, designed to stand upright. The missing portions of the text have led scholars to compare the Rosetta Stone with similar decrees to reconstruct its full content.

E. The Rosetta Stone was unearthed during Napoleon’s military expedition in Egypt. As leader of the French forces, Napoleon was deeply intrigued by Egypt’s ancient civilization and assembled a team of 167 scientists, engineers, and scholars to accompany him. During this campaign, French soldiers stumbled upon numerous artefacts, including the Rosetta Stone. In 1799, while rebuilding a fort at Rashid (Rosetta), they discovered the Stone embedded within a wall. Pierre-François Bouchard (1771–1822), the officer overseeing the work, recognised its potential significance and reported the find to the Institut d’Égypte, a scholarly body established by Napoleon. Following Britain’s victory over France in Egypt, the Rosetta Stone was acquired by the British under the terms of the Treaty of Alexandria. The Stone was transported to England, along with other significant artefacts, arriving in Portsmouth in February 1802. By July of that year, it had been formally presented to the British Museum by King George III. The Rosetta Stone, alongside other sculptures, was placed on public display and has remained a key exhibit since 1802, with only one temporary relocation. During World War I, fearing damage from air raids, museum officials moved it underground for safekeeping. It was stored for two years in a station along the Postal Tube Railway, 15 meters beneath Holborn. Today, the Rosetta Stone continues to attract millions of visitors and remains one of the most visited artefacts in the museum’s collection.

In ancient times, humans and animals were co-dependent and lived in harmony. Today, however, they are often in conflict, and it is the animals that suffer most

The relationship between humans and animals has been a complex and evolving one. In early times, humans relied heavily on animals for survival, and the two species coexisted in harmony. However, as humans developed more sophisticated tools and technology, they began to exploit animals for their own purposes, leading to a shift in the balance of power between the two species. Today, the relationship between humans and animals is often one of conflict, with humans dominating and exploiting animals in various ways.

One of the key factors that has shaped the relationship between humans and animals is the concept of domestication. Domestication refers to the process by which humans selectively breed and train animals for specific purposes, such as food, transportation, or companionship. This process has allowed humans to exert greater control over animals and has led to a significant shift in the balance of power between the two species. However, it has also resulted in the loss of many animal species and the suffering of countless individual animals.

In recent years, there has been growing awareness of the negative impact that human activities have on animals and the environment. Many people are becoming more conscious of the ethical implications of their actions and are seeking to develop more sustainable and compassionate ways of interacting with animals. This has led to the emergence of new approaches to animal welfare and conservation, such as the use of non-lethal methods for managing wildlife populations and the promotion of plant-based diets.

One of the most significant developments in the field of animal welfare has been the recognition of animals as sentient beings with their own needs and interests. This has led to the development of new laws and regulations aimed at protecting animals from harm and ensuring that they are treated with respect and dignity. For example, many countries have introduced laws prohibiting the use of animals in entertainment, such as circuses and rodeos, and have banned the use of cruel and inhumane methods of slaughtering animals for food.

Another important development in the field of animal welfare has been the increasing recognition of the importance of biodiversity and the need to protect endangered species. Many conservation organizations are working to protect and restore habitats for endangered species and are promoting the use of sustainable practices in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. These efforts are aimed at ensuring that future generations will be able to enjoy the rich diversity of life on Earth.

Despite these positive developments, the relationship between humans and animals remains a complex and often contentious one. Many people continue to exploit animals for their own purposes, often without regard for the welfare of the animals or the impact on the environment. This has led to a growing movement of activists and advocates who are working to raise awareness of the issues and promote more compassionate and sustainable ways of interacting with animals.

One of the challenges facing the animal welfare movement is the need to balance the interests of animals with those of humans. Many people rely on animals for their livelihoods, and there are often competing interests and values at play. For example, farmers may be reluctant to give up practices that are harmful to animals if it means sacrificing their own economic interests. Similarly, conservationists may face opposition from local communities if their efforts to protect endangered species are seen as threatening traditional ways of life.

Another challenge facing the animal welfare movement is the need to address the root causes of animal suffering and exploitation. Many of the problems facing animals today are the result of larger social and economic issues, such as poverty, inequality, and environmental degradation. Addressing these issues will require a coordinated and collaborative effort from governments, businesses, and individuals.

In conclusion, the relationship between humans and animals has been a complex and evolving one, shaped by a variety of social, economic, and cultural factors. While there have been positive developments in the field of animal welfare and conservation, there is still much work to be done to ensure that animals are treated with respect and dignity and that their needs and interests are taken into account. This will require a shift in the way we think about and interact with animals, as well as a commitment to addressing the root causes of animal suffering and exploitation. By working together, we can create a more compassionate and sustainable world for both humans and animals.